As the morning sun rises over the silver-bellied storm clouds, a treasured trove of coastal landscapes and architectural marvels bears silent witness to centuries of history. With the Goan waters having seen centuries of transformation, its identity shaped itself over its natural environment housing structures developed in Indo-Portuguese and Vernacular styles. The Portuguese arrived in the early 16th century bringing with them Baroque and Manueline architectural styles ranging from churches, forts, and convents adorned with intricate facades and carvings to residences with open-air courtyards and arched openings.

As waves of sea whisper against the Konkan shores, let us dive into the world of religious heritage architecture, the Churches of Goa, which significantly influenced present-day Old Goa, previously known as Ella, which was the Portuguese capital post-occupation in 1730. The colonial era left an indelible impact on socio-cultural dynamics, urban landscapes, and building techniques within Goan society.

Amongst the many architectural marvels that dot these sceneries, we will focus on three churches that played a significant role in modeling the urban landscapes of Goa which are Basilica de Bom Jesus, Se Cathedral, and Church of Our Lady of the Mount. Each of these structures stands as a testament to unique architectural fusions, conceptualized through ambitious goals of the designers and skilled craftsmen who brought them to life. The weathered stones of each of these cathedrals’ walls have witnessed countless moments of prayers, celebrations, and solemnity.

The Basilica de Bom Jesus

Built between 1594 to 1605, the Basilica de Bom Jesus is the epitome of Renaissance Baroque and Portuguese Colonial architecture. One of the oldest churches in India, its weathered walls house the final resting place of St. Francis Xavier, founder of the Jesuits Missionary.

Representing resilience, grandeur and devotion, the ornate tomb was gifted by Grand Duke Cosimo III of Tuscany, consisting of a silver sarcophagus with inlaid marble of pietre dure style resonant of India’s Taj Mahal and Florence’s Cappella dei Principi, a masterpiece of Indo-Italian art. The façade features three sections divided by vertical pilasters with classical elements like floral motifs and Corinthian columns. As a UNESCO World Heritage Site, this basilica embodies its iconic legacy, continuing to be a source of pride for Goans while its preservation and restoration efforts highlight the importance of maintaining the essence of its cultural heritage.

The Se Cathedral

With its bells marking time for generations of the Goan populace, the Se Cathedral is one of the largest churches in Asia with an imposing Portuguese-Gothic structure. It was conceptualized to commemorate victory on St. Catherine’s feast day in 1510 marking the commencement of Portuguese rule in Goa. Featuring a Tuscan facade with Corinthian elements, the grand entrance and intricate carvings speak of a desire to create something everlasting and indelible.

The cathedral houses the Golden Bell, one of the largest bells in Goa. The design aimed to reflect the grandeur of the Portuguese Empire showing architectural and engineering prowess at the time.  The cathedral’s design showcases cultural exchange by integrating European and Indian artistic traditions. Designated as a UNESCO World Heritage site, the church remains an active place of worship, a pilgrimage site, and an educational resource to this day, where visitors can go back in the timeline to witness the evolution of Goan architectural styles.

Church of our Lady of the Mount

Built of Laterite Stone, the Church of Our Lady of the Mount was built between 1510 to 1519 by Afonso de Albuquerque, the governor of Goa. Perched on a hill with beautiful views of the Mandovi River and the surrounding area, the church blends Baroque and Mannerist styles.  Known for hosting the Monte Festival every year, the chapel has thick walls measuring 2.7 meters and has a façade inspired by Se Cathedral. It has undergone several restorations, the major one being in 2001. While being a spiritual solace, this chapel addresses the stories behind the intertwining of Goa’s sacred and secular landscapes.

Church of our Lady of the Mount

As the sun sets over the Goan Waters, casting shadows over the ancient stones of these architectural marvels, these structures continue to serve as bridges between past and present – where the East fused with the West with their everlasting stories continuing to shape the very urban and socio-cultural fabric of Goan identity.

Beyond being just UNESCO World Heritage sites, these churches keep stories of cultural exchanges, artistic ideas, and dreams alive. Every heritage structure in whichever shape they exist today, inspires us to create our unique legacy wherein future generations can learn further along the line. Heritage is not always about preservation; it’s about understanding ourselves and our capabilities to impart knowledge as mere mortals. Every restored wall, carving, and structure hosting annual festivals keeps cultural traditions alive in this fast-paced world.

References

Wikipedia. (2022). Basilica of Bom Jesus. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilica_of_Bom_Jesus.

Wikipedia Contributors (2023). Se Cathedral. [online] Wikipedia. Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Se_Cathedral.

Wikipedia Contributors (2024). Chapel of Our Lady of the Mount. [online] Wikipedia. Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chapel_of_Our_Lady_of_the_Mount.

Author’s note

Suchita Deva Stuthi

Suchita is an architect pursuing urban planning in Sydney with a wanderlust spirit. When not diving into city spaces, you’ll find me befriending local dogs or learning about design-related tech. Believing that great cities should work for every creature on this planet, I aim to create sustainable stories, one urban space at a time.

Deepavali or Diwali as we call it, is one of the most celebrated festivals across India. This festival of light symbolizes the triumph of light over darkness and good over evil. People from all age groups eagerly wait for the arrival of Diwali each year. In northern India, Diwali is commonly associated with the return of Lord Rama, his wife Sita, and his brother Lakshman to Ayodhya after defeating Ravana and completing their 14-year exile. It’s known that the residents of Ayodhya welcomed their King and Queen by lighting lamps to celebrate their return, making the tradition of lighting diyas(oil lamps).

In Southern India, Deepavali is more closely linked to the legend of Lord Krishna and his wife Satyabhama, who defeated the demon Narakasura. This victory symbolizes the eradication of evil forces and the arrival of prosperity and happiness. This legend is lesser known as compared to the more widely celebrated northern tale.

In South India, Deepavali is celebrated in very simple ways. No Tamil Deepavali is complete without the traditional early morning oil bath where the eldest member of the family or the lady of the household puts a few drops of sesame oil with a gentle massage on the heads of all family members before sunrise. Then a mix of herbs powders or shikakai is used to wash off the oil. This bath is considered as sacred as bathing in the river Ganges. According to mythology, Goddess Mahalaxmi is said to have hidden behind a sesame tree, which is why sesame oil is used for the oil bath. Symbolically, an oil bath implies new beginnings by removing egos, fights, self-esteem, and jealousy.

As a South Indian, Deepavali starts at the crack of dawn for me. All of our family members, wake up early and get ready for our oil bath. In Southern Kerala, we don’t just apply oil to our heads; we cover our entire bodies in sesame oil, believed to cleanse our bodies of toxins for the entire year until the next Deepavali. This tradition of sacred baths is passed down by generations making it customary for us. After the ritualistic oil bath, we put on new clothes signifying a new fresh start and shedding of past burdens. Then we move on to visit the temple to offer prayers and seek blessings from the deities. The temples will be very crowded as Deepavali is a very spiritual festival around there. The temples will be filled with the scent of incense and the sound of devotional hymns.

After the temple visit, we have our traditional veg thali or ‘sadhya’ as we call it. Now this Sadhya might not be as elaborate as it is for Onam. But essential dishes such as ‘sambar’, ‘Avial’ etc might not be excluded. The feast concludes with a delicious ‘payasam,’ making for a perfect ending. As the evening approaches, we then proceed to light up diyas around the house. These oil lamps with their warm glow set up a traditional atmosphere around our homes. Recently,there have been changes in replacing the oil lamps with candles instead due to less availability of oil lamps in our region.

As a South Indian who moved to North India for studies, experiencing Deepavali here has been a drastic change. In North India, Deepavali is a lively festival where people gather together and celebrate with vigor, whereas in South India, it’s more of a calm and peaceful festival within our homes. We try to calm our souls in South India, but North Indian Deepavali is all about enjoying triumph in all strengths and enthusiasm. I believe all South Indians living in North India could relate to this contrasting experience.

Although the legends and traditions of Deepavali differ across various regions of India, we all come together to celebrate the triumph of good over evil. Each region may have its unique customs, but the essence of the festival remains the same: the celebration of light over darkness.

References

https://indianexpress.com/article/lifestyle/life-style/diwali-in-south-india-dee pavali-oil-bath-ritual-6080571/

Author’s note

Sreya S Motti

A third-year student at the Cluster Innovation Centre, pursuing a BA (Hons) in Humanities and Social Sciences. She has a keen interest in Gender Studies and Cinematography, and she loves to travel.

The tale of Mahiwal originated during the Soomra dynasty in the 18th century when the Mughals were still prevalent. Sohni, known for her beauty in the area, belonged to a family of potters named Tulla, who lived in present-day Gujarat, located on the banks of the Channa, which was then part of the Punjab province of Pakistan. Shahzada Izzat Baig, a rich trader from Uzbekistan, came from Bukhara with a caravan for trading purposes. Sohni often helped her father make and decorate clay pots, and one day, during Baig’s stay, he chanced upon seeing her in Tulla’s shop. Completely in awe at first sight, Baig began visiting the shop frequently, buying clay pots, sharing interests, and having deep conversations. This eventually led Sohni to fall in love with him.

As their love blossomed, it came time for Baig’s caravan to leave. Enchanted by Sohni, he decided to stay and live with his beloved. Eventually, he had to work as a servant at Tulla’s shop, having exhausted his wealth during his daily visits to Sohni. He became a buffalo grazer, earning the famous name “Mahiwal” (buffalo grazer). However, a Sindhi variation of the story suggests that Sohni belonged to the Jat tribe, and her love for Mehar blossomed when she gave him milk to drink as her marriage procession passed by the river.

As news of their romance spread, the local potter community grew angry, refusing to let Sohni marry an outsider and forcing her to marry someone from her community. After this turn of events, Baig renounced worldly desires and lived as a faqir in a small hut across the Channa from Sohni’s house. Despite these obstacles, the couple continued to meet at night, with Sohni using baked pots to cross the river and Mahiwal bringing fish he caught each day. Some versions of the folklore suggest that one night, when Mahiwal couldn’t catch any fish, he baked a piece of his thigh. When Sohni took her first bite, she realized, through tears, what Mahiwal had done to keep her from going hungry.

As time passed, Sohni’s sister-in-law discovered the nightly meetings and replaced Sohni’s baked pot with an unbaked one. That night, while crossing the Channa, Sohni realized halfway that her pot was unbaked and would not hold.

“Paar chanaan de disse kulli yaar di Ghariya ghariya aa ve ghariya”

“Yaar noon milegi ajj laash yaar di Ghariya ghariya aa ve ghariya”

The song “Paar Channa De” explores Sohni’s conversation with the ghariya (earthen pot) as she tries to cross the river, pleading for it to hold on, as her lover’s hut lies just across the Channa. If it doesn’t, her beloved will be greeted by her lifeless body. Mahiwal, seeing her struggle, tries to save her, but he is unable to due to the pain from the wound on his thigh. Ultimately, Sohni drowns, and Mahiwal, devastated, jumps into the river, taking his own life. According to legend, Sohni’s tomb is located in Shahdadpur, Sindh.

The themes of love, tragedy, and sacrifice have inspired several poets, with the most renowned version of the tale penned by the Punjabi Sufi poet Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai. The story challenges traditional portrayals of heroes and heroines, depicting Sohni as a strong-willed, independent woman who defies patriarchal norms, while Mahiwal is portrayed as vulnerable, driven by deep love. This tension between traditional values and changing societal norms reflects the evolving values of Sindh.

Set against the backdrop of medieval society, the story also highlights the rigid class divisions based on caste, religion, and social status. The river, a crucial element in the tale, symbolizes the deep connection between waterways and the land in Sindh. The society of the time was also deeply rooted in Sufism, and the story carries a spiritual symbolism—without a true guide on the path to enlightenment, one will drown in worldly distress.

In conclusion, while fate dealt a cruel hand, the story of Sohni and Mahiwal transcends the boundaries of time and culture, continuing to resonate with people across generations. It serves as a timeless reminder of the enduring power of love.

Author’s Note:

Bhavya Singh

Bhavya has diverse interests, ranging from exploring the psychology behind everyday choices to believing in the magical power of words. She enjoys examining the interplay between culture and thought. A lover of movies and storytelling, Bhavya views writing as a powerful tool to transform perspectives and bring dreams to life. Her passion for traveling deepens her understanding of different cultures, which she strives to weave into her storytelling. Through her writing, Bhavya aims to capture the richness of human experiences, uncovering stories that inspire, connect, and resonate with people on a meaningful level.

Time and again, scientists have tried to understand whether there is any link between the two. In 2001, American psychologist James C. Kaufman introduced the Sylvia Plath Effect to argue that female poets are more susceptible to depression than men. In 2013, Karolinska Institutet conducted a study and found that people in creative professions were more likely to suffer from bipolar disorder. Another study conducted in 2017 by International Center for Studies in Creativity at Buffalo State University concluded that a small but positive correlation exists between creativity and psychoticism. However, one’s creative talent would depend on the severity of the disease because an acute illness could reduce the creativity level. Clinical psychologist Kay Redfield Jamison argues that temporary manic-depressive episodes could boost creativity. But these are usually followed by worsening mental health.

Many other women in creative writing, apart from Sylvia Plath, suffered from mental illness. A household name in feminist writing, Virginia Woolf’s childhood was riddled with manic episodes. She suffered from depression following her mother’s death. Psychiatrists have characterised her illness as bipolar disorder. During her lifetime, she was treated by different physicians and briefly institutionalised after her father’s death in 1904. Her brother Thoby’s death in 1906 further degraded her mental state as she started hearing voices. Woolf attempted to project her illness as a necessary condition for her art.

In her novel Mrs. Dalloway, the character Septimus Warren Smith suffers post-traumatic stress disorder after serving in the First World War. When forced to seek treatment at a psychiatric hospital, Smith commits suicide by jumping out of the window. This reveals a disillusionment of psychiatric treatment that Woolf shared with the general British public at the time. Her journals prove how she felt divided between considering her illness a hindrance to her art or a prerequisite for her work. Later, Woolf identified writing as a coping strategy for her illness which was more effective than psychiatry. She said, “The only way I keep afloat is by working . . . Directly I stop working I feel that I am sinking down, down.”

A popular artwork that reflects agony is The Scream, painted by Norwegian artist Edvard Munch in 1893. Munch captures a scene inspired by one of his walks along a fjord in Ekebergasen during sunset. According to Munch, he was out with two friends when, leaning on the fence, he witnessed the sky turn blood red and “sensed an endless scream passing through nature.” In The Scream, the sky is painted orange and red, and the three figures are shaded black. The prime subject appears in a state of anxiety, mouth agape as his hands cover his ears. The painting captures intense emotional distress. How much we find the artist in this work is debatable. Born in 1863, Munch was raised in a strict Christian household. Munch said that he “inherited the seeds of madness” from his father, who was a religious fanatic. Munch was continuously gnawed by the fear of death and hell. During his lifetime, he lost his mother, beloved sister, and later his father; these losses haunted him and found expression in his works. It is evident that his personal life had a deep impact on his works. However, Munch’s troubled state of mind should not be glorified. He was eventually electrified in a psychiatric institution. By 1909, he recovered, as is reflected in his use of vibrant colours. His later works had optimistic themes like landscapes and scenes of people at work. Thus, good mental health intensified his creative genius.

One painting that captures the innermost suffering of a troubled artist is Le Désespéré (The Desperate Man), a self-portrait by the French painter Gustave Courbet. Dressed in a white shirt with hands in his unkempt hair, the artist in the painting looks tense. He stares wide-eyed as if in a state of utter helplessness. The subject captures the artist’s struggle to gain recognition. Courbet was born in Ornans. In 1839, he moved to Paris to pursue a degree in law. But Courbet found himself driven by the passion to copy the Old Masters and learnt to cultivate his style at the studio of Steuben and Hesse. In the 1840s, he made a series of self-portraits, and of these, Le Désespéré stands as the most dramatic. Before Courbet became one of the pioneers of Realism, his artworks were repeatedly rejected by Parisian salons. What Le Désespéré symbolises is a kind of suffering that stems more from his inability to receive patronage rather than mental illness.

Creating art could be a painstaking process. Sometimes it takes months, even years, to perfect a work of art. Christoph Niemann’s Creative Process (2013) depicts a writer with a blank paper in front of him, his nails raking at the table in anguish. A dejected figure with two bunches of folded paper–Neimann represents how difficult it is to communicate through one’s art. Great art could indeed be born of suffering, but it is not the only element that contributes to an artist’s inspiration. It takes skill and an enormous amount of practice to find an artistic approach distinct to the individual.

It is one thing to be inspired by these artists and quite another to romanticize their anxieties. What can be learnt from these lived experiences is that it is possible to see art as therapy, a medium through which one can channel their struggle. A poem or a painting embodies a part of ourselves, a part with which we wish the world to be familiar. The major takeaway is that mental illness should not be left untreated just to fit into the absurd, unrealistic criteria of the “tortured artist.” While addressing today’s tortured artists, curator Sarah Urist Green says, “We want to know about the dark places you have been, we want to see what helps you get out of them, and we want you to stay healthy enough to do that.” To be able to create art, despite all obstacles, is a triumph in itself, a celebration of our endurance and hope toward better days.

References

“The Myth of the Tortured Artist”, YouTube, uploaded by The Art Assignment, 5 October 2018, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rv5-O-jP2i8&list=PLca9Dgr4lYRjy_KiuOx1iKsfNM1xosTUz&index=26

“The Truth of the Tortured Artist”, YouTube, uploaded by The Art Assignment, 1 February 2019, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4IpTxQ_DWy0&list=PLca9Dgr4lYRjy_KiuOx1iKsfNM1xosTUz&index=13

“Edvard Munch.” Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edvard_Munch. Accessed 22 January 2023.

Fiore, Julia. “Gustave Courbet’s “The Desperate Man” Is the Ultimate Self-Portrait of the Artist as Mad Genius.” Artsy, 20 November 2018, https://www.artsy.net/article/artsy-editorial-probing-gustave-courbets-inner-thoughts-the-desperate-man. Accessed 22 January 2023.

Moore, Madison. “The tortured artist — Antithesis Journal.” Antithesis Journal, 24 April 2020, https://www.antithesisjournal.com.au/blog/2020/4/24/the-tortured-artist. Accessed 22 January 2023.

“Virginia Woolf.” Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia_Woolf. Accessed 22 January 2023.

“The Scream, 1893 by Edvard Munch.” Edvard Munch, https://www.edvardmunch.org/the-scream.jsp. Accessed 22 January 2023.

pictures – amazon.in, en.wikipedia.org, https://postscriptmagazine.org/

Bipasha Mahanta

Bipasha identifies as an avid reader. If you don’t find her hoarding books (which she’ll probably not read anytime soon), she could be found poring over Constable’s paintings with a second cup of coffee. Her research interests include Romanticism, Realism, Art History, Cultural History, History of Modern Europe and History of Assam.

One of the most prominent examples of cultural exchange between India and Japan is Buddhism. Buddhism, which originated in India in the 5th century BCE, was introduced to Japan in the 6th century CE by way of China and Korea. It quickly gained popularity in Japan and impacted culture, art, and philosophy. The introduction of Buddhism to Japan led to the development of new forms of art, such as statues and mandalas, which are still widely admired today. Furthermore, the spread of Buddhism in Japan led to the growth of Zen Buddhism, which emphasizes self-discipline and mindfulness. Zen Buddhism has since been adopted by many people all over the world, including the West.

Fig.1. Map explaining the expansion of Buddhism in Asia

Art serves as another mode of cultural exchange between India and Japan. Indian art, particularly the Ajanta caves, has created a profound impact on Japanese art. Located in Maharashtra, the Ajanta caves are a series of rock-cut cave monuments dating back to the 2nd century BCE. The caves are famous for their intricate frescoes and sculptures depicting scenes from the life of Buddha. Japanese artisans and scholars visited the caves in the 19th century. Inspired by the art, they brought the technique back to Japan. The influence of Indian art can be seen in the art of Ukiyo-e, a popular form of Japanese woodblock prints.

In addition to Buddhism and art, India and Japan have shared ideas and traditions in philosophy. The Indian philosopher Nagarjuna, who lived in the 2nd century CE, is considered one of the most influential figures in the development of Mahayana Buddhism. His teachings were translated into Chinese, and later into Japanese. They had a significant impact on the development of Zen Buddhism. Similarly, Ashoka, who lived in the 3rd century BCE, played an important role in the growth of Buddhism. His edicts advocated for non-violence and religious tolerance. They were also first translated into Chinese and then into Japanese. These edicts contributed to spreading Buddhism in Japan.

One of the most striking similarities is the presence of a god of wisdom and knowledge in both cultures. In India, this god is known as Ganesha; in Japan, he is called Kangiten. Both gods have elephant heads, a symbol of intelligence and wisdom. They are associated with arts, literature, and learning. It is believed that they remove obstacles and bring good luck.

Another god that is present in both cultures is the god of war. While this god is known as Skanda in India, his Japanese counterpart is Hachiman. Skanda and Hachiman are considered powerful warriors and protectors of their respective nations. Both share a connection with hunting and wild animals. They are also renowned as the gods of archery and hunting.

Fig.2. Kangiten in Japan

The goddess of fertility and motherhood is also a common deity in both cultures. She is known as Kali in India and Kannon in Japan. These goddesses are depicted as having multiple arms and are connected with the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. Both are revered as the protectors of children and pregnant women. Also, they are associated with healing and compassion.

Further, a god of wealth and prosperity is present in both cultures. Known as Kubera in India and Daikokuten in Japan, this god is associated with wealth and abundance. He is famous as the protector of merchants and traders. Kubera and Daikokuten also bring success to businesses.

These similarities in gods and goddesses between India and Japan demonstrate how, despite the great distance and cultural differences between the two countries, certain human experiences and emotions are universal. The ideas of a god of wisdom, a god of war, a goddess of fertility and motherhood, and a god of wealth and prosperity are relatable and meaningful concepts to people from different cultures.

India and Japan have also shared technology and ideas in the field of science. The Indian mathematician Aryabhata, who lived in the 5th century CE, is a notable figure in the development of mathematics. His works were translated into Chinese and later into Japanese, thus impacting the progress of mathematics in Japan.

Similarly, Indian metallurgy, particularly the making of wootz steel, had a crucial impact on Japanese sword-making. The Indian method of making wootz steel arrived in Japan in the 8th century CE.

In recent years, India and Japan have strengthened their cultural links through various initiatives. The two nations have established special centres to promote cultural exchange. They have also organized festivals to showcase their rich heritage. Furthermore, many Indian and Japanese universities have established exchange programs to promote cultural interaction between students.

In conclusion, this cultural exchange not only nurtures both nations but also serves as a reminder of the universality of human values and concepts. It is important to appreciate the shared traditions as this fosters mutual understanding and respect. As one learns about the similarities between Japan and India, it becomes clear that studying the connections between different cultures is extremely valuable.

References

• Jain, Ashok. (2019). India-Japan: History of Cultural Interactions: Lesser Known Features & Looks.
• Lokesh Chandra (2014). Cultural interflow between India and Japan. New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture.
• Thakur, Upendra. “India and Japan, a Study in Interaction During 5th Cent.-14th Cent. A.D.” “Abhinav Publications”.
• De, B. W. T. (2011). The Buddhist tradition in India, China & Japan. New York: Vintage eBooks.
• Kini-Singh, Amita. (2022). Japan’s Ancient Indic Heritage: A Review of “Hindu Deities Worshipped in Japan” by Benoy K. Behl. Ancient Asia. 13. 10.5334/aa.274.

Picture Courtesy

• 1. : https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Buddhist_Expansion.svg
• 2. : https://www.flickr.com/photos/83626281@N00/3193804791
• 3 : https://www.nahbriggs.top/
• 4 : https://aeon.co/

Somya Goel

I’m Somya Goel from the Research Authentication team of ILF. As a history student with a passion for cultural history, I find joy in delving into the past and uncovering the rich tapestry of human experience. My love for history is matched only by my love for painting, which allows me to connect with the past in a creative and personal way. Through my studies and personal research, I have explored various facets of history, from ancient civilizations to modern events, and each discovery only deepens my appreciation for the past. My goal is to share my passion for history and art with others and to continue to learn and grow as a historian and an artist.

Neither my parents have forced me to believe their faith, nor have I ever tried to make them follow mine. Still, I was fascinated by mythological tales and studied books and stories from Hinduism to Christianity to Norse and Greek. I have enjoyed learning about them, and as an admirer of history and heritage, knowing people and their beliefs is equally important and helpful while exploring sites.

On one of my trips to Tamil Nadu, I decided to visit the ancient city of Madurai for some days. And there I came across one of the most beautiful and intricate temples I have ever seen–Arulmigu Meenakshi Sundaraswarar Temple. The design of the city centre, the temple architecture, the deep-rooted history it holds, and the friendly locals made me fall in love with Madurai forever. As an atheist, it is rare for me to have such a strong connection to a religious site, but the beauty and significance of this temple made it an exception.

About a kilometre south of the river Vaigai, the majestic Meenakshi temple lies in the heart of the famed temple city. Dedicated to Goddess Meenakshi, a form of Shakti, and Sundaraswarar, a form of Shiva, the temple finds its mention in the mid-6th century Tamil Sangam literature. On getting down at the Madurai railway junction, a road crossing of West Veli Street and a left turn to Town Hall Road, one can get the view of the ornate West Tower of the Madurai Meenakshi Temple, standing high amidst the busy market.

The temple has monuments that are present inside many concentric enclosures. Every layer is fortified with high walls. Four towering gateways in the outer walls allow entry from all directions for devotees. Madurai might have been destroyed around the 14th century. Then, according to Tamil tradition, King Viswanatha Nayaka rebuilt the city and the temple by adhering to the principles of the Shilpa Shastras. The city plan follows a concentric square design. Streets emerging from the temple, as described by early Tamil texts, appear like the petals of a lotus.

The Meenakshi temple complex covers an area of approximately 14 acres. Here, the courtyard appears like a square, with each side measuring almost 800 feet; it is better to describe it as a rectangle, with every side 50 feet longer. Out of the numerous shrines and mandapas, the most prominent ones are the two parallel shrines in the innermost courtyard. One is dedicated to Meenakshi; the other is to Sundaraswarar. Other features of the complex include a golden lotus sacred pool, a thousand-pillared hall choultry, and a kalyana mandapa. Visitors shall also notice small shrines for Hindu deities and scholars from Sangam history. There are religious schools, equipment sheds for holding the chariots used in periodic processions, and gardens. The temple is situated amid a commercial hub and traditional markets.

The Arulmigu Meenakshi Sundaraswarar Temple in Madurai is a significant religious and cultural site for Hindus. The temple is particularly notable for its celebration of the marriage of Meenakshi and Sundaraswarar, which serves as a symbolic representation of the sumangali concept, or the idea of an “auspicious married woman” who is the chief part of Tamilian life. The temple also holds an annual festive procession called “Meenakshi Thirukalyanam” around April to commemorate this event. Additionally, the temple is significant due to its relationship between the Shaivism and Vaishnavism traditions of Hinduism. Meenakshi, who has a central role in the Shaktism tradition, comes across as a dominant figure in the temple. Overall, the temple honours all three major traditions.

I have never been so excited to visit a temple. During my two-day stay at Madurai, I explored the complex many times, taking a detailed look at each gateway tower, the courtyard, the museum collections, and other gopuras. The colourful sculptures on the towers narrate legendary scenes from Hindu texts. There is an aura in the city, in the vicinity of the temple, and it reflects in its busy streets and markets. Over the centuries, the temple has been a centre of education in culture, literature, art, music, and dance.

When you plan your next trip to Tamil Nadu, make sure to include a visit to Madurai. The city offers much more than just the magnificent temple. Immerse yourself in its rich history, explore the Tamil culture, stroll through charming streets and soak up the aura of Madurai.

(Photo Credits: Kunal Aich – Author)

References:

worldkings.org. https://worldkings.org/news/world-top/top-30-houses-of-worship-with-stunning-architecture-in-the-world-p-23-meenakshi-temple-symbol-of-madurai-city

Featured image : https://www.khanacademy.org/

Kunal Aich

I’m an engineer by profession, a numismatist by hobby, and a history and archaeology enthusiast by passion. I’m currently associated with ILF in different roles of Cultural Researcher, Mapper, and Spark. Also a post-graduate History student of AMU Aligarh, I take much interest in South Indian Archaeology. I spend my leisure time traveling historical places all over India and the number counts to over 300.

On a wintry December morning, walk down sideways of Jawaharlal Nehru Road from the iconic Park Street to Elliot Park. A right diversion towards Cathedral Road, and another, will land up to Queen’s Way. There lies the Queen’s Memorial, surrounded by the scenic Maidan, covered in the morning mist, mesmerising the Central Kolkata skyline with its white makrana marble structure.

The Victoria Memorial is among the most famous monuments of Kolkata. It has the highest footfall among all the museums in India. Erected between 1906 and 1921, it is the largest monument dedicated to a monarch in the world. The Empress of India from 1876 to 1901 was Queen Victoria, whose memory is enshrined in this structure. Today, Victoria Memorial acts as a museum. This tourist destination is managed by the Ministry of Culture.

Built on the spot that used to be the Presidency Jail, Victoria Memorial is fashioned after the Taj Mahal in Agra and is visited by over 2 million tourists every year. In 1921, the Prince of Wales inaugurated this building. It is considered an example of Indo-Saracenic revivalist-style. Synonymous with Kolkata, it epitomises beauty and grandeur with the Angel of Victory figure atop its central dome.

The Victoria Memorial boasts 25 galleries with almost 3900 paintings. Some of these are the royal gallery, the central hall, the arms and armoury gallery, and the newer Calcutta gallery. Lush greenery and ponds encircle the Memorial, creating a beautiful scene. Walk the gardens to absorb their wonder. Several statues mesmerise with their intricacy and craftsmanship. The bronze statue of Queen Victoria sits upon a throne and is dressed in the robes of the Star of India. Allegorical sculptures of Motherhood, Love, Justice, Art, Architecture, Charity, Learning, and Prudence are present around the central dome.

The elegant Memorial was constructed with finances provided by the princes and people of India. Lord Curzon’s appeal led to the collection of donations from all over the country. The British government had a small contribution in the construction cost. In 1943, during World War II, it was painted black to camouflage the building and prevent it from the danger of Japanese air raid bombings.

At night, lit up against the dark skies, the Victoria Memorial appears exquisite and magnificent. The light and sound show takes visitors on a fascinating journey through Kolkata’s heritage and history. Next time you are in the City of Joy, experience the glory that the “marble-ous” marvel beholds.

(Photo Credits: Kunal Aich)

Sources:

1. https://victoriamemorial-cal.org/home/content/en
2. https://www.fabhotels.com/blog/victoria-memorial-kolkata/
3. https://housing.com/news/victoria-memorial-kolkata/

Kunal Aich

I’m an engineer by profession, a numismatist by hobby, and a history and archaeology enthusiast by passion. I’m currently associated with ILF in different roles of Cultural Researcher, Mapper, and Spark. Also a post-graduate History student of AMU Aligarh, I take much interest in South Indian Archaeology. I spend my leisure time travelling historical places all over India and the number counts to over 300.

We live in a world with an increasing population and limited resources. Being the world’s fourth-largest religion, Buddhism and Buddhist perspectives on global issues are popular. Buddhist philosophy is based on sustainable development and creating social harmony. Limited resources cause poverty, which further causes suffering, which in turn, leads to ignorance. One should free the mind from material desires and aim for well-being.

Poverty and wealth, though appearing as enemies, are interdependent. Both are related to the desires of material life; none leads to true happiness. Born into a royal family, Buddha left his palace to seek enlightenment and true peace. Various Buddhist monks take the responsibility of healing themselves and others from dukkha.

Wealth cannot buy happiness. Instead, the calmness of the mind provides tranquility.

Poverty in a Psychological Sense

In Buddhism, a common belief about poverty is the need to measure impoverishment with an open mind. Moral quality is as important as material needs. (Ethan Safran, 2014)

One must cultivate wealth by learning moral virtues like faith, wisdom, virtuous behaviour, moral shame, generosity, and moral dread. (Anguttara Nikaya A.N. 7.6 and 7.7) Such forms of wealth cannot be taken away and lead to the cessation of suffering. Buddha states that the ones lacking these moral temperaments are truly poor. (A.N. 6.45)

According to Buddhist teachings, work should not be a means to satisfy desires and wishes. Work should be part of the process of building skills and character. When someone works according to the Buddhist concept of the right livelihood, they find sustainable happiness. (Ernest, 2020)

“Being poor is glorious.” This idea made every Chinese willingly accept poverty during the Cultural Revolution. (Ven. Jing Yin, 2019) Nowadays, the poor focus on becoming rich. They devote all their energy to wealth which leads to the recalling of sorrows.

According to Ekottara Agama, if a person is poor and has no access to food and clothing, he will not be able to dwell on spiritual goals. The desire for wealth shall arise. Once he becomes rich, he shall yearn for a good reputation; then healthy life; then good well-being; then a happy afterlife. This greed never stops, and the inner world gets unsettled. Buddhism believes that this continuous cycle leads to suffering and can be stopped only by detaching oneself from material greed.

Comparative Analysis of Poverty

The greatest wealth is contentment. (David Loy, 2011)

According to Buddhism, poverty comes under two sections. First, the one where people struggle to satisfy basic material needs like food and shelter. This section, also called poor (fig. 1), faces dukkha. Second, those who aim for spiritual goals, like monks (fig. 2) and nuns. This section cannot satisfy their basic material needs. However, the latter are content because they have chosen this path of detachment and do not face dukkha.

Henceforth, Buddhism provides remedies to end this dukkha, the suffering of the poor. Buddhism also draws attention to the fact that material things cannot provide happiness, which can be proved by looking at the life of spiritual ones. Buddhists believe in acting with loving kindness and showing compassion towards all. They want to help people who are suffering in poverty. (BBC, 2012)

There is no satisfying the senses, not even with a shower of money. – Buddha

According to Loy, a Zen teacher, poverty means the absence of satisfying basic material needs, leading to a decent life free from exposure and hunger. He describes that the monastic life of Buddhist tradition includes basic needs of food, clothing, healthcare, and shelter. Still, a person living under these terms is free from the pleasures and possessions of an average being. That is the difference between monastic life and poverty. (Ethan Safran, 2014).

Buddhist Views on Wealth

Buddha labels tanha, craving, as another cause of dukkha. (Upaya Zen center, 2011) People gain an intense drive to possess things, and the same things become the cause of suffering. They contain less satisfaction and more anxiety. Wealth and possessions are needless distractions. A person must be happy to possess the things required to sustain day-to-day life.

Buddhism influences financial decision-making by providing a moral approach. (Molekowa, 2021) The dream house, fancy car, designer outfits, and other luxurious items will not last forever. These items do not define human beings. (Lindewi, 2021) By remaining calm and detached, one can gain moral benefits from possessions. Promoting sustainable marketing and ecological sustainability is crucial in finance. (Janek, 2019)

Gain is illusion, losing is enlightenment. (Lindewi, 2021)

We should keep personal finance realistic and accept that loss is inevitable. Personal finance is not an exact science. (Smita Nag, 2019) It is necessary to deal with losses effectively as it determines financial well-being. According to Buddha, money is a number that never ends. Anyone who searches for happiness with money shall continue to search forever.

Buddhist Literature on Poverty and Wealth 

In Anguttara Nikaya, Buddha says that poverty is equivalent to suffering for the householders. The Cakkavattisihanada Sutta of Digha Nikaya mentions poverty as the cause of crimes like theft, violence, short life, falsehood, ill health, and deteriorated family values. Many passages from early Buddhist Pali scriptures advise people to seek wealth in righteous ways. (Ven. Jyotika)

Once Buddha advised the great banker Anathapindika (fig.3) that there are four kinds of happiness for those who lead a household life. These are the happiness of ownership (attisukha), the happiness of freedom (ananasukha), the happiness of enjoyment (bhogasukha), and the happiness of blamelessness (anavajjasukha). (Ven. Jyotika) The first three are related to possessing wealth while the last deals with morality.

Buddhist Solutions

In the Pali Canon, Shakyamuni Buddha teaches the Middle Way between excessive indulgence and rigid self-denial. (Senauke H, 2021) He pictures a world without poverty and describes four kinds of happiness for a householder. These are the happiness of earning livelihood through rightful means, the happiness of sharing wealth with family, the happiness of getting freed from debt, and the happiness of living without the thoughts or actions of evil. (Senauke, 2021)

Buddha believes that the development of the mind is the basis for developing moral character. If the moral character is not strong, the masses will not succeed in shifting the paradigm of discontent and economic greed, which will only lead to inequality. (Dipen, 2018)

In Digha Nikaya (III 180), a code of discipline for ordinary life in Sigalovada Sutta contains two important verses. One passage declares, “the wise and the virtuous shine like a blazing fire.” It continues to say that if a layperson acquires and spends the money as advised by Buddha, their regular life will be well-run. They will receive love from their community. (Dipen, 2018)

According to Buddhism, wealth is the practice of genuine wisdom and true kindness. (Thaye Dorje, 2016) Practising these values leads to the eradication of the causes of physical and mental poverty. Thus, the individual gains absolute prosperity. Inner Wealth is the path to overcoming anxiety. A person can achieve this path through three components:

• Repeatedly listening to Buddha’s teachings
• Contemplating those teachings
• Meditating on the facts

People must learn to limit the desires of excess and spend money on things that last for a long time, like education or savings. (Smita Nag, 2019) Being ethical and generous towards finance leads to self-improvement. The cause of suffering is unquenched desire, which one should reject by eliminating worldly pleasures. Organisations using externally and internally sourced project finance for investment should adhere to the Buddhist principles of banking and finance in investment evaluations. (Janek, 2019)

Buddhism is treated more as a series of moral disciplines and less as a religion. Buddhism points out that ignorance traps humans in a wheel of birth and rebirth and leads to dukkha. Only when humans see the truth through meditation can they liberate themselves from suffering. Creating harmony and equality are the core qualities of Buddhism. They ensure economic stability and prosperity. Where there is stability, peace prevails.

It is essential to develop the mind as it plays a significant role in shaping desires. As it is the forerunner of all, it should receive Buddhist philosophy on greed and enlightenment. Buddhist literature further includes wonderful stories which inspire laymen as well as monks.

References

1. David Loy. (2008). The Greatest wealth is contentment: A Buddhist perspective on poverty.
2. BBC. (2012). Wealth and Poverty: Part of Religious Studies.
3. Ethan Safran. (2014). Contemporary Buddhist perspectives on poverty. Borgen magazine.
4. Ernest C. (2020). A Buddhist Perspective: Is Universal Basic Income Genuinely Caring, Compassionate and Wise? Berkeley Center.
5. Ven. Jyotika. The Function of Wealth in Buddhism. Buddhivihara.
6. Dipen B. (2018). Buddhist Perspectives on the Expenditure and Deployment of Income and Assets. Buddhistdoor Global.
7. Thaye Dorje. (2016). Inner Wealth for the Buddhist Practitioner.
8. Senauke H. (2021). No Poverty: The Sustainable Development Goals and Buddhism. 9. Ven. Jing Yin. (2019). Buddhist Values and Economics: Investing in a Sustainable Future. 10. Upaya Zen center. (2011). The Greatest wealth is contentment: A Buddhist perspective on poverty.
9. Lindiwe Molekoa. (2021). 7 moral money principles from Buddhism: ‘Its about mental economy’.
10. Smita Nag. (2019). Buddhism and Personal Finance. Outlook Money.
11. Janek Ratnatunga. (2019). Buddhist Banking and Finance: A Philosophy for Sustainable Value Creation.
12. Picture Courtesy :Source: Helping poor people foundation, FacebookSource: Vipassana Research Institute

RIYA DOSHI

I’m Riya Doshi from research authentication team. An archaeology and ancient history student,  dancer by passion, mass media enthusiast, I am contributing to Indian culture with my knowledge and skills. I aim to learn from every aspect of nature, and aim to preserve it with efficient methods.

Around 40 kilometres north of Kolkata lies the town of Chandannagar. Chandannagar, or Chandernagore as one may call it, has been one of the unknown treasures of Bengal. People believe that the C-shaped structure of the river banks has given the town the name Chandannagar or Chand er Nagar (the village of the moon). Previously known as Farasdanga, this city has witnessed Rabindranath Tagore’s countless stories and poetry in Patal Bari, the childhood and youth of Rash Behari Bose, and a historic battle in 1757.

So much to explore!

What is the history of Chandannagar?

Three villages, Borokishanpur, Khalisani, and Gondalpara, combined to form Chandannagar in 1698. It soon became Bengal’s primary hub for European trade. Business thrived in this town. Boats anchored here for rice, wax, saltpetre, indigo, jute, and rope. The first European to grow indigo here was Louis Bonnaud. Dinanath Chandra developed the first tincture factory in the area, while Batakrishna Ghosh owned a cloth mill, the first established in Bengal. Indrakumar Chattopadhyay published the first Bengali map.

Moreover, Chandannagar was known as the “Granary of the East.” The town’s Lakshmiganj Market was once the largest marketplace for rice in Asia.

Becoming a French colony

After purchasing the territory from Ibrahim Khan, the then Nawab of Bengal, the French had founded a colony in Chandannagar in 1673. In 1688, they settled permanently in the area. Years later, Joseph Dupleix was appointed mayor.

Siege of Chandannagar

Plan of Chandannagar Siege by British Troops

The siege of Chandannagar occurred when the British force led by Robert Clive and Charles Watson successfully attacked the French-held town on March 23, 1757, as part of the Seven Years’ War campaign. Up to the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1763, which ended the war, Chandannagar was under British military control. Clive and Watson bombarded Chandannagar and destroyed the French fortress of Fort D’Orleans.

The Nandadulal temple, built by the dual efforts of Joseph Dupleix and Indranarayan Chowdhury, still bears the marks of canon used during the siege.

The Nandadulal Temple

The Sacred Heart Church in Chandannagar

French architect Jacques Duchatz created the Sacred Heart Church. On January 27, 1884, Paul Goethals inaugurated the building. Chandannagar had at least 4,000 Catholic residents already by the year 1753. The church, shaped like a cross, has beautiful glasswork in its windows, skylights, and other appealing architectural features. Founded by Augustinian monks around 1688, the church was consecrated to the Sacred Heart of Jesus. As a result, it is a congregation with a sizeable Catholic population.

      The Institut de Chandernagor, an Indo-French Cultural Center

The horseshoe-shaped town was divided into an inland native Villé Noire (Black Quarter) and a French Villé Blanche (White Quarter). The Institut de Chandernagor, an Indo-French Cultural Center holding one of the oldest museums in the area, was once a naval godown and the home of Governor Joseph Dupleix. The magnificent collection featured French artifacts such as cannons from the Anglo-French War, Shola crafts from Bengal, items connected to Dupleix and Tagore, rare paintings, and furniture from the eighteenth century.

The structure today contains the Ruplal Nandy Cancer Research Centre, which was once a Portuguese trader’s gala or shellac storehouse, hence the name gala kuthi or shellac house.

The Chandannagar Strand

The Strand was bordered by historical structures and reminded one of Pondicherry’s Promenade. The Hotel de Paris, erected in 1878 (currently Sub-divisional court), and the Thai Shola Hotel, built in 1887, originally served as markers for the northern end (presently Chandernagore College).

The French enclave was the ideal haven for freedom fighters like Kanailal Dutta, the revolutionary leader Rash Behari Bose, and social reformer Sri Harihar Seth.

After Independence

After India gained independence on August 15, 1947, the French authorities declared that the colonies would decide whether to stay with India or be a part of the French colonies.

On June 19, 1949, the French government held a referendum, and an overwhelming 97% of voters supported joining forces with India. As a result, Chandannagar was given to the Indian government as part of a pact that France and India concluded on February 2, 1951, in Paris. This agreement was called the Treaty of Secession of the Territory of the Free Town of Chandernagore. The city was de jure handed to India on June 9, 1952. On October 2, 1954, Chandannagar finally merged with the state of West Bengal through the Chandannagar Merger Act of 1954.

Chandannagar is a counterculture, moving against time and convention. The once-French colony is famous for Jagadhatri Puja, an event celebrated with vibrance and enthusiasm.

It has, as its citizens, held back the tide of monoculturalism time and time again. It is also an inseparable part of what it means to be Bengali, much like the Durga pandal lighting tableaus that have gained international acclaim.

References

Perrier, Jean-Claude, and Kishore Gaurav. Travels in French India: Mahé, Pondichéry, Karikal, Yanaon, Chandernagor. Calcutta, India: Sampark, 2017.

Mukhopadhyay, Kanchana. Chandernagore and Its Dependencies: The Unfulfilled Dream of Dupleix (1674-1731). Kolkata: Bingsha Shatabdi, 2017.

Bose, Lina, and Jenia Mukherjee. “Understanding Heritage Conservation from Project Management Perspectives: Case Study Chandannagar.” Journal of Heritage Management, 2022, 245592962211143. https://doi.org/10.1177/24559296221114387 .

Walia, Sumit. “Exploring Chandannagar History & Present.” Stories n Tales, May 12, 2022. https://traveldreams.live/chandannagar-history-present/experiences-travel-n-beyond/2022/ .

“Chandannagar – a Small France in India | Neline Mondal | History of Jagadhatri Puja! | Bonjour India.” YouTube. YouTube, November 5, 2019. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FwB-ZEu5yNM .

. “Chandannagar – Former French Colony of West Bengal.” Techulator, May 4, 2011. https://www.socialvillage.in/resources/44571-chandannagar-former-french-colony-west-bengal

Credits: Robert Barker

Source: “RCIN 732007 – Plan of Chandannagar, 1757 (Chandannagar, Bengal, India) 22°5209N 88°2238E.” RCIN 732007 – Plan of Chandannagar, 1757 (Chandannagar, Bengal, Accessed August 27, 2022. https://militarymaps.rct.uk/the-seven-years-war-1756-63/chandannagar-1757-plan-of-chandernagore-with-the.

Picture 1 – Source: “RCIN 732007 – Plan of Chandannagar, 1757 (Chandannagar, Bengal, India) 22°5209N 88°2238E.” RCIN 732007 – Plan of Chandannagar, 1757 (Chandannagar, Bengal,… Accessed August 27, 2022. https://militarymaps.rct.uk/the-seven-years-war-1756-63/chandannagar-1757-plan-of-chandernagore-with-the

Picture 2 – Source: https://commons.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nandadulal_Temple-Chandannagar-West_Bengal-DSC_3223_00001.jpg

Picture 3 – Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sacred_Heart_Church-Chandannagar-West_Bengal-DSC_4328.jpg

Picture 4 – Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Duplex_Palace._%28Institute_de_Chandannagar%29.jpg

Picture 5 – Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dourgachorone_Roquitte_Souvenir_-_Strand_Road_-_Chandan_Nagar_-_Hooghly_-_2013-05-19_7898.JPG

Picture 6 – Source: https://www.getbengal.com/

Archi Biswas

A history nerd at heart and a holocaust researcher, I take on life as an explorer. The charm of heritage speaks to me, and I strive to be a curator of the same. I am a doggo loving, documentary watching bibliophile who really listens.

of human existence. Studying Bhimbetka cave paintings is the best way to learn about contemporary society from the Mesolithic to the medieval period.

Discovery of Bhimbetka Caves

In 1957, while travelling from Bhopal to Itarsi on a train, archaeologist V. S. Wakankar saw several hillocks with enormous boulders from the train window. After getting off the train, he arrived at the location and stumbled across the murals covering these rock shelters. He understood the significance of these caves right away. His study and findings earned him the Padma Shri award from the government. In 2003, these shelters received the UNESCO World Heritage Site designation.

Structure and Architecture

A group of craggy sandstone formations, Bhimbetka lies in the Vindhya Range. This region has over 700 rock shelters. Around 400 rock shelters lie across the core area covering 1892 hectares and comprising the hills Bineka, Bhonrawali, Bhimbetka, Lakha Juar (East), Lakha Juar (West), and a buffer zone in the west called Muni Baba ki Pahari. Bhimbetka comprises 243 rock shelters, 133 of which include rock paintings.

The predominant rock type in the region is quartz, while large quantities of kaolinized feldspars and epidotic amphibole are also present. These juvenile sandstones are more susceptible to weathering and erosion activity, leading to scalloped potholes and variably shaped rock shelters.

One distinctive aspect of these rock shelters is their artwork. Out of the sixteen colours that Upinder Singh has named, white and pale red have been used more frequently than other shades. The colours were created by grinding minerals, which were then combined with water or ingredients like animal fat, marrow, or egg. The red colour came from iron oxide (geru), the white from limestone, and the possible source of the green was green chalcedony.

The following caves were open for tourists when I visited the place. Each type of cave shows unique artistic features.

Rock Shelter 1

Inside this shelter, one can see a trench where boulders lie one above another, their size diminishing with height. The layer marks of sedimentation reveal that the area was once below the primeval Tethys Sea. A few portable imaginary installations titled “Bhimu and his family” are present to help young visitors understand the prehistoric environment.

The interior has paintings in white colour, featuring elephants or mammoths, a person riding a bull, and hunting scenes.

Rock Shelter 3

V. S. Wakankar named this shelter “Auditorium Cave” because of its grandeur and magnificent appearance. The western end of this cave, approximately 39 metres long, 4 metres broad, and 17 metres high, features a large tunnel, almost 25 metres long and containing three entrances. The paintings here mark a borderline between the lower and middle Paleolithic ages. This shelter has 17 spots displaying prehistoric paintings composed of red sienna, light red, burnt umber, and sepia.

Human figures take the form of matchstick-like structures, holding hands and forming a circle, a scene of a celebration. Another wall has paintings of bulls, cows, peacocks, deer, and a human hand. One enormous rock has several cupules that are approximately 16.8 millimetres deep.

Rock Shelter 4

This shelter is semicircular in shape. Dr. Wakankar titled it “The Zoo Rock” since it features several lifelike and exquisite animal designs.

The shelter has paintings of 453 figures, including 252 animals from 16 different species. 90 paintings show people performing various tasks. 99 fragmentary figures and one inscription in the Sankha script are also seen. The shelter is exquisitely painted, having up to ten layers of figures stacked on top of one another. Besides a few paintings from the historical era, the rock shelter has mostly prehistoric paintings.

Rock Shelter 5

This shelter consists of two chambers, one atop another, and both have paintings executed in white and red ochre pigments. Like other rock shelters, it also has interesting depictions–animals like goats and deer, and a man holding a sword-like structure. Somewhere, there would have been a drawing of a langur leaping around a tree, but I couldn’t find it. The guides said that some depictions would not be visible due to climatic changes and the surfaces getting touched by tourists continuously.

Tortoise Hill

This rock structure resembles a tortoise. The caves and strangely shaped rock formations in this region are formed due to the enlargement of cavities brought on by chemical and physical weathering and erosion. Nearby another rock contains geometrical designs and paintings.

Rock Shelter 7

The paintings here belong to the historical period. There is a depiction of six horse riders, where the third one appears larger than the others. The ceiling shows a swordsman riding a caparisoned horse.

Rock Shelter 9

With an easterly orientation, this shelter is relatively shallow. It also has a little chamber on the left. Coloured in green, yellow, red, and ochre, the paintings of this shelter are attractive and stand out from those of others–a rider mounted on a stunningly painted horse, a lovely flower vase with yellow and white flowers.

Rock Shelter 12

The drawings again show a variety of animals. On one side lies a picture of a buffalo with huge horns, while on the other, galloping nilgais are depicted. Four fleeing chital does in a vertical row are shown as though plummeting down from an elevated precipice.

Rock Shelter 15

This enormous rock resembles a mushroom. It is known for a gigantic silhouette figure of a boar-like animal painted 9.85 metres above the ground. The legendary creature portrayed is large and has composite features, including two crescent-shaped horns, a large nose with moustaches, and bristles on the back.

Close to the animal’s snout stands a man who appears to be running from the boar. A crab lies in front of this running man. The most popular animal renderings in the shelter include those of buffalo, cow, rhinoceros, and langur.

History of the rock shelters

According to folklore, the name Bhimbetka comes from the term “Bhimbaithaka,” which refers to the place where Bhima, one of the Pandavas of Mahabharata, sat. On the northwestern slopes of Bhonrawali hill, Bineka, Bhimbetka, and Lakha Juar, Buddhist artefacts from the early historical era, like the stupas from the Sunga period, have been discovered. These monuments correspond to inscriptions from rock shelters dating to the second century B. C.

Archeological evidence shows that this site was in continuous use from the lower Paleolithic period to the medieval period.

Cockburn was responsible for publishing the first academic study on Indian rock paintings in 1883. In an 1888 research based on data from Adivasis for reconstructing the history of the Bhojpur lake, W. Kincaid first mentioned Bhimbetka and described Bhimbet hill on the opposite end of the lake as a Buddhist sanctuary. The location came to prominence only in 1957, when discovered by V. S. Wakankar. Finally, K. D. Bajpai and S. K. Pandey of Dr. Harisingh Gour University conducted thorough archaeological research on two shelters of the Bhimbetka hill.

Tourism Aspect

The Archaeological Survey of India, along with the State of Madhya Pradesh, provides many facilities for tourists.

The entry to the site has various information plates which let tourists know about its aspects beforehand. The plate accompanying each rock shelter explains its peculiar features. Visiting the place, even a person unfamiliar with the history of the caves shall understand the importance of such heritage. The plates also describe the conservation process undertaken by ASI. They are enacted in Braille as well. Several guides are present too. Brochures are also provided to the tourists to guide them throughout their visit to the site. I believe every monument should receive such attention and care.

References-

Singh, U. (2019), A history of ancient and early medieval India: From the stone age to the 12th century, Pearson.

UNESCO – Asia and Pacific, (2003), Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka, https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/nominations/925.pdf

Picture Courtesy –

• https://www.travelclix.in/rock-shelters-of-bhimbetka/18-rock-shelters-of-bhimbetka/
• https://www.india.com/travel/articles/bhimbetka-rock-shelters-a-must-visit-destination-for-history-lovers-3240727/
• http://indpaedia.com/ind/index.php/Bhimbetka_Caves

Jahnavi Tanwar

Heya, I’m Jahnavi, an intern under the Cultural Research department of ILF. With a deep interest in art and its development throughout different ages, I am trying my best to thrive myself with the plethora of knowledge bank available in the world. Travelling is the thing I like to do the most. Through it, I came across many sites like Badami, Hampi, Bateshwar, Bhimbetka and the list never ends. It’s my pleasure to make people aware about them and respect our heritage.